John Michael Greer´s readers seem to be history nerds, since they wanted him to expand on an off-the-cuff comment he made a few years ago on the strength of the Ottoman Empire during the early 16th century! Ooookay. Not Richard Wagner, then? So here we go. I also asked ChatGPT to comment on some of the points raised in JMG´s essay (see long chunk of text below the link). Good luck!
A case study in stimulus diffusion
Can you compare the size and strength (military, economic, political) of the Habsburg Empire and the Ottoman Empire during the early 16th century?
Certainly. During the early 16th century—roughly from 1500 to 1550—the Habsburg Empire and the Ottoman Empire were two of the most powerful and expansive states in Europe and the Mediterranean. Here's a comparative overview across military, economic, political, and territorial dimensions:
1. Military Strength
Ottoman Empire
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Standing Army: Included the elite Janissaries, one of the earliest modern standing armies in Europe.
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Navy: Dominant in the eastern Mediterranean. Admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa secured naval supremacy over much of the Mediterranean in the 1530s and 1540s.
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Victories: Major success at the Battle of Mohács (1526), defeating Hungary and opening Central Europe to Ottoman expansion.
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Tactics & Organization: Advanced logistics, use of firearms, and effective command structure.
Habsburg Empire
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Military Composition: Relied heavily on levies, mercenaries (like the German Landsknechts), and feudal contingents.
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Navy: Weaker than the Ottomans in the Mediterranean; more focus on land power, especially in Europe.
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Conflicts: Engaged in the Italian Wars and a long-running struggle against the Ottomans in Hungary and along the Austrian frontier.
Verdict: The Ottoman military was stronger, especially in terms of organization, professionalization, and naval power during this period.
2. Economic Power
Ottoman Empire
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Controlled vital trade routes between Europe, Asia, and Africa.
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Cities like Istanbul, Cairo, and Aleppo were major economic centers.
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Agricultural base was strong, supported by a complex timar system (land grants in exchange for military service).
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Taxation and plunder from newly conquered territories (e.g., Mamluk lands, Hungary) boosted revenues.
Habsburg Empire
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Wealth came from Spain’s American colonies (after Charles V inherited the Spanish crown in 1516), but massive silver imports only became substantial in the late 16th century.
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Controlled rich regions like Flanders, parts of Italy, and the Rhineland, with developed economies.
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Faced chronic financial problems due to continuous warfare and reliance on borrowing.
Verdict: Roughly balanced, with the Ottomans having a broader internal economic base and the Habsburgs increasingly dependent on colonial wealth (which had not yet peaked in the early 16th century).
3. Political Structure and Power
Ottoman Empire
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Highly centralized under the Sultan (e.g., Suleiman the Magnificent), with a unified administrative and legal system.
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Bureaucracy was efficient and backed by the devshirme system (recruitment of Christian boys for state service).
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Political stability was relatively high during Suleiman’s reign.
Habsburg Empire
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A dynastic conglomerate, especially under Charles V, who ruled over Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, and parts of Italy.
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Power was fragmented; Charles had to contend with independent princes in the Holy Roman Empire, and frequent revolts.
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Bureaucratic cohesion was weaker due to the diversity of territories.
Verdict: The Ottomans had a more unified and centralized political system; the Habsburgs had greater breadth but less cohesion.
4. Territorial Extent and Influence
Ottoman Empire
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Controlled the Balkans, Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, parts of North Africa, and by mid-century, large parts of Hungary.
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Expansion continued into Central Europe and the Mediterranean.
Habsburg Empire
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Ruled over Spain, the Low Countries, parts of Italy (Naples, Milan), Austria, and were Holy Roman Emperors.
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Charles V also inherited the Americas and began overseas expansion.
Verdict: Habsburgs had a wider global reach, but the Ottomans had more contiguous and manageable land-based territories with stronger regional dominance.
Summary Table
| Category | Ottoman Empire | Habsburg Empire |
|---|---|---|
| Military | Superior, especially on land/sea | Strong but fragmented |
| Economic | Strong internal base, trade routes | Wealth growing from colonies |
| Political | Centralized, unified rule | Dispersed, dynastic patchwork |
| Territory | Large, contiguous empire | Wider but fragmented & global |
Conclusion:
In the early 16th century, the Ottoman Empire was stronger militarily and more cohesive politically, with significant regional dominance in the Mediterranean and the Balkans. The Habsburg Empire, while vast and rising in global influence (especially under Charles V), was more challenged by internal fragmentation and financial strain. However, their colonial wealth and dynastic reach laid the foundation for long-term power.
Would you like a map comparison of their territories around 1520–1550?
From 1550 to 1600, the balance of power between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Empire shifted in subtle and complex ways. While both remained major powers, their relative strength evolved, especially as the Habsburgs consolidated overseas wealth and the Ottomans began to face more internal and external challenges.
1. Military Strength (1550–1600)
Ottoman Empire
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Still formidable, but signs of military overextension began to appear.
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Fought the Long Turkish War (1593–1606) against the Habsburgs, which drained resources.
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Navy declined in dominance after the Battle of Lepanto (1571), a major defeat by the Holy League, led by Spain and Venice.
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Continued to field strong land armies, especially in the Balkans and eastern Mediterranean.
Habsburg Empire
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Military power grew, especially through Spanish forces and increased use of firearms and fortifications.
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Spanish Habsburgs (Philip II) achieved naval supremacy with victory at Lepanto.
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Infantry (Spanish tercios) became the gold standard of early modern warfare.
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More professionalized and disciplined armies compared to earlier decades.
Verdict: The Habsburgs became militarily stronger, particularly at sea and in Western Europe, though the Ottomans remained powerful on land in the East.
2. Economic Strength
Ottoman Empire
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Still wealthy, but began to feel strain from continuous warfare, especially against Persia and the Habsburgs.
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Inflation (due to influx of New World silver into global markets) destabilized the economy.
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Some decline in the efficiency of tax collection and the timar system.
Habsburg Empire
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Enormous influx of silver from the Americas, especially from Potosí and Mexico.
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Still faced serious debt and financial mismanagement (Philip II declared bankruptcy several times).
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The Spanish economy was overstretched, particularly due to military commitments in the Netherlands, Italy, and against England.
Verdict: The Habsburgs had more wealth, but it was unevenly managed and tied up in military expenditures. The Ottomans had a more sustainable economy early on, but began to falter by century’s end.
3. Political Structure and Stability
Ottoman Empire
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Suleiman the Magnificent died in 1566; successors (Selim II, Murad III) were competent but not of Suleiman's caliber.
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Power gradually shifted to the imperial court, viziers, and the harem (the so-called "Sultanate of Women").
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Signs of bureaucratic decay and court intrigue emerged.
Habsburg Empire
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Philip II of Spain (r. 1556–1598) centralized power significantly in Spain.
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However, faced major challenges:
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The Dutch Revolt (1568–1648).
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The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 by England.
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Ongoing wars in Italy and the Mediterranean.
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Verdict: Both empires faced growing internal pressures, but the Ottomans remained relatively more stable internally; the Habsburgs were increasingly challenged by rebellion and overstretch.
4. Territorial and Global Influence
Ottoman Empire
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Continued expanding in Eastern Europe, North Africa, and against Persia.
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Held a dominant position in the Balkans, Anatolia, and the Levant.
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Less active in the Atlantic or global trade.
Habsburg Empire
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Spain (under Philip II) was the dominant global empire, with vast territories in the Americas, the Philippines, and major European possessions.
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Controlled Portugal and its empire from 1580 to 1640, adding Brazil, Africa, and Asian trade routes.
Verdict: The Habsburgs (especially the Spanish branch) had far greater global reach and influence, while the Ottomans remained a regional superpower.
Summary Table (1550–1600)
| Category | Ottoman Empire | Habsburg Empire |
|---|---|---|
| Military | Strong on land, declined at sea (post-1571) | Strengthened army/navy, more modern military |
| Economic | Still strong, but weakening | Wealthy from colonies, but in chronic debt |
| Political | Centralized but facing internal decay | Increasing centralization, but rebellion-ridden |
| Global Power | Dominant in the Eastern Med/Middle East | Dominant globally, especially after 1580 |
Conclusion
In the second half of the 16th century, the Habsburgs (especially Spain under Philip II) surpassed the Ottomans in military modernization, global reach, and economic wealth (despite financial strains). The Ottoman Empire remained strong, but its relative power plateaued, while early signs of internal strain and imperial overreach began to show.
Overall, the Habsburgs were stronger globally, while the Ottomans were still formidable regionally, especially in the Balkans and the eastern Mediterranean.
Would you like a timeline or map showing key developments between 1550 and 1600?
The idea that Protestant reformers were directly inspired by Islam is mostly a modern hypothesis, not something strongly supported by direct evidence from the time. However, there are some indirect connections, parallels, and contextual interactions that have led scholars to explore the idea more seriously in recent decades. Here's a breakdown:
1. Direct Influence? Very Limited Evidence
There is no conclusive primary-source evidence that major Protestant reformers like Martin Luther, John Calvin, or Ulrich Zwingli were intentionally inspired by Islamic theology or political models in shaping their religious views. The core doctrinal reforms—like sola scriptura (scripture alone), sola fide (faith alone), and rejection of papal authority—came from internal critiques of Catholic theology and practice, not from Islamic sources.
2. Indirect Influence: Some Contextual Interactions
Luther and the Ottoman Turks
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Martin Luther wrote extensively about the Ottomans, especially during the 1520s and 1530s, when the Ottomans were threatening Central Europe.
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He viewed Islam as a scourge sent by God to punish Christian corruption, but also criticized Catholic militarism against the Ottomans, saying that the Turks should be resisted not as “infidels” but as unjust aggressors—hinting at a more rational political theology.
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Some scholars argue that his view of Islam as a monotheistic religion with strong legal and political unity made him rethink the relationship between church and state—but this influence is highly indirect.
Islam as a Mirror
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Some European intellectuals and reformers used Islam as a negative foil to critique the Catholic Church—e.g., comparing papal power to that of the Sultan or calling the papacy “Antichrist” in ways that echoed critiques of Islamic despotism.
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Islam’s rejection of icons, strong emphasis on scripture, and unity between law and religion sometimes invited comparisons with Reformed Protestantism, especially in Zwinglian or Calvinist circles.
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However, these comparisons were more polemical or rhetorical, not clear indicators of theological borrowing.
3. Later Scholarship and Hypotheses
Recent historians and political theorists have speculated on structural or philosophical parallels:
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Max Weber and others noted similarities between Islamic legalism and Calvinist discipline, though not in terms of influence.
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Some scholars explore how the presence of the Ottoman Empire in Europe created a geopolitical alternative to Christendom, potentially empowering Protestants by weakening the ideological monopoly of the Catholic Church.
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In the 20th and 21st centuries, some have suggested that Protestant views on iconoclasm, anti-clericalism, or the unity of law and faith might have parallels in Islam, but again, this is analogical, not documentary evidence of influence.
4. Key Limitation: Lack of Transmission Mechanism
For genuine intellectual influence to occur, there must be a mechanism of transmission—translations, discussions, shared texts, correspondence, etc. In the early 16th century:
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Islamic theology was not widely available in Europe in translation.
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Most knowledge of Islam came from polemic, hearsay, or travelers' accounts, not scholarly exchange.
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Arabic and Islamic legal or philosophical texts were mostly confined to Spain and southern Italy and were studied by Catholics, not Protestants, at this time.
Conclusion
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Direct inspiration? No strong evidence.
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Indirect influence or parallel development? Plausible in some rhetorical, political, and structural ways.
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Modern scholarly hypothesis? Yes—mainly in the form of comparative historical analysis, not documentary proof of inspiration.
So, while it's intellectually stimulating to explore Islam as a contextual factor or mirror for the Reformation, it's not historically accurate to say that Protestant reformers were inspired by Islam in any direct, substantive sense.
Would you like a list of modern scholars who explore these comparative angles in more detail?
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